美索不達米亞宗教

義大利戰爭(1494年～1559年)

Italian Wars

為了取得義大利統治權的一系列戰役。交戰者主要是法國和西班牙，但歐洲各國幾乎都捲入，戰爭結果使得西班牙哈布斯堡（Habsburgs）王朝取得義大利的統治權，並將勢力由義大利移到西北歐和大西洋世界。戰爭起於1494年法國國王查理八世入侵義大利。查理八世攻下拿不勒斯，但卻被麥西米利安一世、西班牙以及教宗的聯軍趕出義大利。1499年法王路易七世又入侵義大利，並攻下米蘭、熱那亞及拿不勒斯，但不久費迪南五世領導的西班牙軍隊就將路易七世逐出拿大勒斯，另外教宗朱利斯二世也在1508年組織坎佈雷同盟（the League of Cambrai）攻下威尼斯，1511年又組神聖同盟（Holy League）將路易七世逐出米蘭。但1515年法蘭西一世又在馬里納諾戰役大勝，法西雙方才在1516年達成和平協議，法國擁有米蘭，西班牙則得到那不勒斯。1521年查理五世和法蘭西一世又起戰端，法蘭西一世遭擄，並被迫簽下馬德里合約（Treaty of Madrid，1526年），宣佈放棄法國在義大利的所有權利；但法蘭西一世獲釋之後即撕毀合約，並與英王享利八世、教宗克里蒙七世、及威尼斯和佛羅倫斯組成新聯盟，不過查理五世則攻陷羅馬並強迫教宗加盟，後來法蘭西一世在1529年坎佈雷條約（Treaty of Cambrai）宣佈放棄在義大利的一切權利，直至1559年的卡多﹣岡布黑條約，戰爭才完全結束。

English version：

1494年～1559年

Italian Wars

Series of violent wars for control of Italy. Largely fought by France and Spain,but involving much of Europe,they resulted in Italy's domination by the Spanish Habsburgs and shifted power from Italy to northwestern Europe and its Atlantic world. The wars began with the invasion of Italy by the French king Charles VIII in 1494. He took Naples,but an alliance between Maximilian I,Spain,and the pope drove him out of Italy. In 1499 Louis XII invaded Italy and took Milan,Genoa,and Naples,but was driven out of Naples in 1503 by Spain under Ferdinand V. Pope Julius II organized the League of Cambrai (1508) to attack Venice,then organized the Holy League (1511) to drive Louis out of Milan. In 1515 Francis I was victorious at the battle of Marignano,and in 1516 a peace was concluded by which France held onto Milan and Spain kept Naples. Fighting began in 1521 between Emperor Charles V and Francis I. Francis was captured and forced to sign the Treaty of Madrid (1526),renouncing all claims in Italy,but once freed he repudiated the treaty and formed a new alliance with Henry VIII of England,Pope Clement VII,Venice,and Florence. Charles sacked Rome in 1527 and forced the pope to come to terms,and Francis gave up all claims to Italy in the Treaty of Cambrai (1529). By the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis (1559),the wars finally ended.