研究生英語作文範文

　　為了在不久的將來，成為一名會英語的研究生，我們從現在就開始看英語作文積累詞彙。下面是小編給大家整理的，供大家參閱!

　　：Evolution of Sleep

　　Sleep is very ancient. In the electroencephalographic sense we share it with all the primates and almost all the other mammals and birds: it may extend back as far as the reptiles.

　　There is some evidence that the two types of sleep, dreaming and dreamless, depend on the life-style of the animal, and that predators are statistically much more likely to dream than prey, which are in turn much more likely to experience dreamless sleep. In dream sleep, the animal is powerfully immobilized and remarkably unresponsive to external stimuli.

　　Dreamless sleep is much shallower, and we have all witnessed cats or dogs cocking their ears to a sound when apparently fast asleep. The fact that deep dream sleep is rare among prey today seems clearly to be a product of natural selection, and it makes sense that today, when sleep is highly evolved, the stupid animals are less frequently immobilized by deep sleep than the smart ones. But why should they sleep deeply at all? Why should a state of such deep immobilization ever have evolved? Perhaps one useful hint about the original function of sleep is to be found in the fact that dolphins and whales and aquatic mammals in general seem to sleep very little. There is, by and large, no place to hide in the ocean. Could it be that, rather than increasing an animal's vulnerability, the function of sleep is to decrease it? Wilse Webb of the University of Florida and Ray Meddis of London University have suggested this to be the case. It is conceivable that animals who are too stupid to be quiet on their own initiative are, during periods of high risk, immobilized by the implacable arm of sleep. The point seems particularly clear for the young of predatory animals. This is an interesting notion and probably at least partly true.

　　全文翻譯：

　　睡眠的進化

　　睡眠是古老的。 從腦電圖上看，我們人類和所有靈長目動物以及幾乎所有的哺乳動物 和鳥類都一樣需要睡眠;甚至爬行類動物也有睡眠。 有證據顯示，有夢睡眠和無夢睡眠這兩種型別的睡眠取決於該動物的生活方式。 從統計上看，食肉動物比被捕食動物有更多的 有夢睡眠，而被捕食動物更多地無夢睡眠。

　　動物在有夢睡眠時，被有效地解除動作能力， 並且對外界刺激缺乏反應。 無夢睡眠則要淺得多。 我們都看到過貓和狗在顯然的酣睡中， 有一點響動耳朵就會豎起來。 被捕食動物很少有深度的有夢睡眠，這看來顯然是自然選擇 的結果。

　　而且這一點是有道理的：當睡眠高度進化以後，愚笨的動物比聰明的動物更少在 深度睡眠狀態下喪失動作能力。

　　但是動物為什麼要進入深度睡眠呢?為什麼這樣的無動作狀 態也會進化出來呢? 海豚、鯨魚以及水生哺乳動物睡眠都極少，這一事實可以給睡眠的根本 功能提供有用的線索。 海洋中是沒有藏身之處的。 會不會是這樣，睡眠不但不增加動物受 傷害的可能性，反而是減少了這種可能性呢?佛羅里達大學的 Wilse Webb 和倫敦大學的 Ray Meddis 認為情況就是如此。 可以想像得出，在危險的時刻，那些由於太愚笨而不能自動保 持安靜的動物，會不由自主地變得動彈不得。 這一點在食肉動物的幼獸身上表現得特別明 顯。 這是一個很有意思的看法，它至少部分是正確的。

　　：The Historical Significance of American Revolution

　　The ways of history are so intricate and the motivations of human actions so complex that it is always hazardous to attempt to represent events covering a number of years, a multiplicity of persons, and distant localities as the expression of one intellectual or social movement; yet the historical process which culminated in the ascent of Thomas Jefferson to the presidency can be regarded as the outstanding example not only of the birth of a new way of life but of nationalism as a new way of life. The American Revolution represents the link between the seventeenth century, in which modern England became conscious of itself, and the awakening of modern Europe at the end of the eighteenth century. It may seem strange that the march of history should have had to cross the Atlantic Ocean, but only in the North American colonies could a struggle for civic liberty lead also to the foundation of a new nation.

　　Here, in the popular rising against a "tyrannical" government, the fruits were more than the securing of a freer constitution. They included the growth of a nation born in liberty by the will of the people, not from the roots of common descent, a geographic entity, or the ambitions of king or dynasty. With the American nation, for the first time, a nation was born,

　　not in the dim past of history but before the eyes of the whole world.

　　全文翻譯：美國革命的歷史意義

　　歷史的程序是如此錯綜複雜，人類行為的動機是如此令人費解，以至於想把那些時間跨度大，涉及人數多，空間範圍廣的事件描述成為一個智者或一場社會運動的表現的企圖是危 險的。 然而以托馬斯·傑弗遜登上總統寶座為高潮的那一段歷史過程可以被視為一個特殊 的例子。

　　在這段歷史時期裡不僅誕生了新的生活方式，而且民族主義成為了一種新的生活 方式。 美國獨立戰爭成為聯結 17 世紀現代英格蘭的自我意識和 18 世紀末現代歐洲的覺醒 的紐帶。 歷史的行程需要跨越大西洋，這看起來似乎有些奇怪，但卻只有在北美殖民地為 民權和自由的鬥爭才能導致新國家的建立。

　　這裡，反對"暴政"的民眾起義的成果不僅是獲 得一個包含更多自由的憲法，還包括了一個依照人民的意願誕生在自由中的國家的成長。這 個國家不是基於血緣、地理、君主或王朝的野心。 由於有了美國，第一次一個國家的誕生不是發生在歷史模糊的過去，而是在全世界人們的眼前。

　　：Children's Numerical Skills

　　People appear to be born to compute. The numerical skills of children develop so early and so inexorably that it is easy to imagine an internal clock of mathematical maturity guiding their growth. Not long after learning to walk and talk, they can set the table with impressive accuracy-- one knife, one spoon, one fork, for each of the five chairs. Soon they are capable of noting that they have placed five knives, spoons and forks on the table and, a bit later, that this amounts to fifteen pieces of silverware. Having thus mastered addition, they move on to subtraction. It seems almost reasonable to expect that if a child were secluded on a desert island at birth and retrieved seven years later, he or she could enter a second-grade mathematics class without any serious problems of intellectual adjustment.

　　Of course, the truth is not so simple. This century, the work of cognitive psychologists has illuminated the subtle forms of daily learning on which intellectual progress depends. Children were observed as they slowly grasped -- or, as the case might be, bumped into -- concepts that adults take for granted, as they refused, for instance, to concede that quantity is unchanged as water pours from a short stout glass into a tall thin one.

　　Psychologists have since demonstrated that young children, asked to count the pencils in a pile, readily report the number of blue or red pencils, but must be coaxed into finding the total. Such studies have suggested that the rudiments of mathematics are mastered gradually, and with effort. They have also suggested that the very concept of abstract numbers - the idea of a oneness, a twoness, a threeness that applies to any class of objects and is a prerequisite for doing anything more mathematically demanding than setting a table - is itself far from innate.

　　全文翻譯：兒童的數學能力

　　人似乎生來就會計算。 孩子們使用數字的技能發展得如此之早和如此必然，很容易讓 人想象有一個內在的精確而成熟的數字鐘在指導他們的成長。

　　孩子們在學會走路和說話後 不久，就能以令人驚歎的準確佈置桌子--五把椅子前面分別擺上一把刀、一個湯匙、一把叉子。 很快地，他們就能知道他們已在桌面上擺放了五把刀、五個湯匙、五把叉子。 沒有多 久，他們就又能知道這些東西加起來總共是 15 把銀餐具。

　　如此這般地掌握了加法之後，他 們又轉向減法。 有一種設想幾乎順理成章，那就是，即使一個孩子一出生就被隔絕到荒島上，七年後返回世間，也能直接上小學二年級的數學課，而不會碰到任何智力調整方面的大 麻煩。當然，事實並沒有這麼簡單。

　　本世紀認知心理學家的工作已經揭示了智力發展所依 賴的日常學習的微妙形式。 他們觀察到孩子們緩慢掌握那些成年人認為理所當然的概念的 過程，或者是孩子們偶然遇到這些概念的過程。 他們也觀察到孩子們拒絕承認某些常識的 情況。 比如： 孩子們拒絕承認當水從短而粗的瓶中倒入細而長的瓶子中時，水的數量沒有 變化。 心理學家們而後又展示一個例子， 即：讓孩子們數一堆鉛筆時，他們能順利地報出 藍鉛筆或紅鉛筆的數目，但卻需誘導才能報出總的數目。 此類研究表明：數學基礎是經過 逐漸努力後掌握的。

　　他們還表示抽象的數字概念，如可表示任何一類物品並且是在做比擺 桌子有更高數學要求的任何事時都必備的一、二、三意識，遠遠不是天生就具備的。

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